Question: Define Developmental Psychology. - Answer: The scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span., Question: Define Learning. - Answer: The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience., Question: What are the three major issues in developmental psychology? - Answer: Nature and Nurture, Continuity and Stages, and Stability and Change., Question: What are the three stages of prenatal development? - Answer: Zygote, Embryo, and Fetus., Question: What are Teratogens? - Answer: Harmful agents (e.g., viruses, drugs) that can cause harm to the embryo or fetus during prenatal development., Question: What are Schemas in Piaget's theory? - Answer: Mental molds into which we pour our experiences., Question: Define Assimilation (Piaget). - Answer: Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas., Question: Define Accommodation (Piaget). - Answer: Adapting current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information., Question: What is Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage (age range)? - Answer: Birth to approximately 2 years., Question: What is the key development in the Sensorimotor Stage? - Answer: Object Permanence—the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived., Question: What is Piaget's Preoperational Stage (age range)? - Answer: Ages approximately 2 to 7 years., Question: What are two key limitations in the Preoperational Stage? - Answer: Egocentrism and Lack of Conservation., Question: What is Egocentrism? - Answer: The inability to take another person's point of view., Question: What is Lack of Conservation? - Answer: Not grasping that properties remain the same despite changes in form., Question: What key development emerges in the Preoperational Stage related to others' minds? - Answer: Theory of Mind—the ability to infer others' mental states., Question: What is Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage (age range)? - Answer: Ages approximately 7 to 11 years., Question: What is the key development in the Concrete Operational Stage? - Answer: Understanding conservation and performing mathematical transformations., Question: What is Piaget's Formal Operational Stage (age range)? - Answer: Ages approximately 12 and up., Question: What is the key development in the Formal Operational Stage? - Answer: Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and deductive logic., Question: What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)? - Answer: The space between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help from a more skilled person., Question: Define Attachment. - Answer: An emotional tie with another person, seeking closeness and showing distress on separation., Question: What did Harlow's Monkey Experiments demonstrate? - Answer: The crucial importance of contact comfort for attachment, beyond mere nourishment., Question: What are the three main attachment styles identified by Mary Ainsworth? - Answer: Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, and Insecure-Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment., Question: What are Kohlberg's three stages of moral development? - Answer: Preconventional, Conventional, and Postconventional Morality., Question: What is the focus of Preconventional Morality? - Answer: Self-interest; morality based on avoiding punishment or gaining rewards., Question: What is the focus of Conventional Morality? - Answer: Upholding laws and social rules; morality based on gaining social approval or maintaining social order., Question: What is the focus of Postconventional Morality? - Answer: Self-defined ethical principles and basic rights; morality based on abstract reasoning., Question: What is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence (Erikson)? - Answer: Resolving the crisis of Identity vs. Role Confusion., Question: How do fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence change with age? - Answer: Fluid intelligence tends to decrease; crystallized intelligence tends to remain stable or increase., Question: Define Classical Conditioning. - Answer: A type of learning where two or more stimuli are linked, and events are anticipated., Question: Who was the pioneer of classical conditioning? - Answer: Ivan Pavlov., Question: Define Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). - Answer: A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response., Question: Define Unconditioned Response (UCR). - Answer: An unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS., Question: Define Neutral Stimulus (NS). - Answer: A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning., Question: Define Conditioned Stimulus (CS). - Answer: An originally irrelevant stimulus (NS) that, after association with a UCS, triggers a conditioned response., Question: Define Conditioned Response (CR). - Answer: A learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus., Question: What is Acquisition in classical conditioning? - Answer: The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship., Question: What is Extinction in classical conditioning? - Answer: The diminishing of the CR when the UCS no longer follows the CS., Question: What is Spontaneous Recovery? - Answer: The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR., Question: What is Generalization? - Answer: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS., Question: What is Discrimination? - Answer: The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli., Question: Define Operant Conditioning. - Answer: A type of learning where behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher., Question: What is Thorndike's Law of Effect? - Answer: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely; unfavorable consequences, less likely., Question: Who was a highly influential figure in operant conditioning, developing the operant chamber? - Answer: B.F. Skinner., Question: Define Reinforcement. - Answer: Any event that increases a behavior., Question: Define Positive Reinforcement. - Answer: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior., Question: Define Negative Reinforcement. - Answer: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior (not punishment)., Question: Define Punishment. - Answer: Any consequence that decreases a behavior., Question: Define Positive Punishment. - Answer: Administering an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior., Question: Define Negative Punishment. - Answer: Withdrawing a rewarding stimulus to decrease a behavior., Question: How does Continuous Reinforcement affect learning and extinction? - Answer: Rapid learning, but also rapid extinction., Question: How does Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement affect acquisition and extinction? - Answer: Slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction., Question: What is a Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule? - Answer: Reinforces after a specific number of responses; produces a high response rate., Question: What is a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule? - Answer: Reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses; produces a very high, steady rate and is hard to extinguish., Question: What is a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule? - Answer: Reinforces after a specific time has elapsed; produces a choppy stop-start pattern., Question: What is a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule? - Answer: Reinforces at unpredictable time intervals; produces a slow, steady rate of response., Question: Who was the pioneer of Observational Learning? - Answer: Albert Bandura., Question: What is the core concept of observational learning? - Answer: We learn social behavior by observing and imitating others (modeling) and by vicarious reinforcement/punishment., Question: What did the Bobo Doll Experiment demonstrate? - Answer: Learning can occur without direct reinforcement, as children imitated aggressive actions seen in a film., Question: What did Latent Learning (Edward Tolman's rat experiments) show? - Answer: Learning can occur without obvious reinforcement, as rats formed cognitive maps that were only demonstrated later with incentive., Question: What are Phonemes? - Answer: The smallest distinctive sound units in a language., Question: What are Morphemes? - Answer: The smallest units that carry meaning (may be a word or part of a word)., Question: What is the Babbling Stage (language development)? - Answer: Around 4 months, spontaneously uttering various sounds., Question: What is the One-Word Stage (language development)? - Answer: Around 1 year, speaking mostly in single words., Question: What is the Two-Word Stage (language development)? - Answer: Around 2 years, speaking in two-word statements (telegraphic speech)., Question: What is the core idea of the Nativist Perspective (Noam Chomsky)? - Answer: Language is an innate human capability, proposing a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and Universal Grammar., Question: What is the core idea of the Behaviorist Perspective (B.F. Skinner) on language acquisition? - Answer: Language is learned through operant conditioning principles: association, imitation, and reinforcement., Question: What is the key concept from the Interactionist Perspective on language acquisition? - Answer: Both biology and experience play crucial roles, including a critical period for language acquisition in childhood.,

Chapter 5: Development and Learning (ESSENTIALS)

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