Reliability, Consistent measurement across respondents in comparable situations. , Validity, The degree to which answers correspond to what they are intended to measure., Social desirability bias, Respondents alter answers to appear more favourable., Acquiescence Bias, The tendency to agree with statements regardless of their content, especially in agree/disagree formats., Recency, The tendency for respondents to select the last options they hear when alternatives are read aloud., Primacy effect, The tendency for respondents to select options presented earlier in a visually displayed list., Double-barrelled question, A question that asks about two different concepts simultaneously, making it impossible to interpret the answer clearly., Opinion floating, People who shift between a substantive response and 'don't know' depending on whether the DK option is explicitly offered., Non-differentiation, When respondents give identical ratings to all items in a battery instead of discriminating between them., Satisficing, A cognitive shortcut where respondents give a 'good enough' answer rather than carefully optimising their response., Telescoping / recall, Misplacing events in time — reporting events as more recent than they actually were, or as more distant., Optimising, The full cognitive process: interpreting the question, retrieving relevant information, integrating a judgement, and mapping it to a response option., Strong satisficing, Respondents skip cognitive steps entirely and choose the easiest acceptable answer, Speeding, Rushing through the survey, spending too little time per question to engage in genuine cognitive processing., Straightlining, Selecting the same response option for every item in a matrix or battery without reading individual items — a form of strong satisficing., Semantic differential, A response scale anchored by two opposing adjectives (e.g. good–bad) with numbered points between them, measuring meaning or attitude., Likert scale, A response scale that measures the degree of agreement or disagreement / approval or disapproval with a statement using ordered response categories..

Tutorial 2. Concepts

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