Cross-sectional studies (One contact) - Measuring the levels of airborne particulate matter (PM2.5) in different neighborhoods of a city at a single point in time to compare pollution exposure across regions., Before-and-after studies (Two contacts) - Measuring the water quality of a river/lake before and after installing a wastewater treatment plant to assess the impact of the intervention., Longitudinal studies (Three or more contacts) - Monitoring groundwater nitrate levels in agricultural regions every year over a 10-year period to evaluate the long-term effects of fertilizer use., Retrospective - Analyzing historical satellite imagery to assess how urbanization has contributed to the loss of mangrove forests in the last 30 years., Prospective - Setting up a study to track the impact of rising temperatures on coral bleaching in a reef system over the next decade., Retrospective–prospective - Using historical air quality records combined with ongoing air quality monitoring to study the relationship between industrial expansion and air pollution trends in a region., Experimental - Designing an experiment to test how different biochar amendments in soil affect the removal of heavy metals from contaminated wastewater., Non-experimental - Observing and recording seasonal variations in rainfall to study their natural patterns without any manipulation., Semi-experimental (Quasi-experimental) - Studying the effect of a government-imposed ban on single-use plastics by comparing plastic waste levels before and after the policy, even though researchers did not control the intervention themselves.,

Study Design Types

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