Transference - SL word directly taken into TL text with no translation, Naturalization - adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation of TL, Through translation - literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations, components of compounds, Shift / transposition - a change in grammar from SL to TL, Modulation - a variation through a change of viewpoint, perspective and thought, Cultural equivalent - SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word, Functional equivalent - use of culture-free word, with a more specific term to generalize the SL word, Descriptive equivalent - the meaning of SL word is explained in several words, Couplets, triplets, quadruplets - combine 2, 3, 4 procedures to deal with a problem, Reduction & expansion - rather imprecise procedures, sometimes practised intuitively, Paraphrase - explanation of meaning of a segment of the text, Notes, additions, glosses - provide additional information, Synonymy - use where there's no clear one-to-one equivalent, the word is unimportant,

Translation procedures

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