LAN, A Local Area Network; connects devices in a small, limited area like a home, office, or school., WAN, A Wide Area Network; connects networks over large geographic areas., MAN, A Metropolitan Area Network; spans a city or large campus., PAN, A Personal Area Network; short-range connections like Bluetooth between personal devices., Star Topology, A network layout where all devices connect to a central hub or switch., Bus Topology, A network layout where all devices share one communication line or cable., Mesh Topology, A network layout where every device connects to every other device; very fault-tolerant., Router, A device that connects different networks and directs traffic between them., Switch, A device that connects devices within a LAN and sends data only to the correct device., Hub, A device that sends data to all devices in a network; less efficient than a switch., Access Point (AP), A device that provides wireless connectivity to a wired network., Modem, A device that converts digital signals to analog and back, allowing internet access., Firewall, A system that blocks or allows network traffic based on security rules., TCP, A reliable, connection-based protocol used for sending data., UDP, A faster but connectionless protocol used for streaming and speed., IP, The protocol that handles addressing and routing packets across networks., DNS, Translates human-friendly domain names to IP addresses., DHCP, Automatically assigns IP addresses and network settings to devices., HTTP/HTTPS, Web communication protocols; HTTPS adds encryption for secure browsing., FTP/SFTP, Protocols used to transfer files; SFTP is the secure version., IPv4, A 32-bit IP address format (e.g., 192.168.1.1); most commonly used today., IPv6, A newer 128-bit IP address format designed to replace IPv4., Subnet Mask, Divides an IP address into the network and host portions., Default Gateway, The device that routes traffic from a local network to the internet (often a router)., ping, A tool to test if a device is reachable over the network., tracert/traceroute, A tool to trace the path packets take to a destination., ipconfig / ifconfig, Displays a device’s current IP and network settings (Windows/Linux)., nslookup, Looks up DNS info for domains to troubleshoot name resolution., netstat, Shows active connections and ports used by your system., nmap, Scans networks for open ports and services..

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