Operationalization, Operationalization is the process of defining abstract concepts or variables in practical, measurable terms. In research, this means specifying exactly how a concept (like "stress" or "memory") will be observed and measured in a particular study., Counterbalancing, Counterbalancing is a method used in experimental design to control for the effects of the order in which treatments or conditions are presented. By varying the order across participants, researchers can minimize order effects (such as practice or fatigue) that might influence the results., Confounding variable, A confounding variable is an outside factor that can affect the results of an experiment, making it difficult to determine whether the independent variable is actually causing the observed effect. Confounding variables can lead to inaccurate conclusions if not controlled., Reductionism, Reductionism is the approach of breaking down complex phenomena into simpler components for study. In psychology, this might mean explaining behavior solely in terms of biological processes, ignoring social or environmental factors., Positivism, Positivism is a philosophical approach that asserts that knowledge should be based on observable, empirical evidence and scientific methods. Positivists believe that only what can be measured and observed is meaningful for scientific inquiry., Determinism, Determinism is the belief that all events, including human behavior, are caused by preceding factors and conditions, leaving no room for free will. In psychology, this suggests that behavior is shaped by genetics, environment, or unconscious drives., Free-will, Free-will is the idea that individuals have the power to make choices and control their actions independently of external or internal forces. It contrasts with determinism and suggests that people are responsible for their own behavior., Holism, Holism is the perspective that systems and their properties should be analyzed as wholes, not just as a collection of parts. In psychology, holism emphasizes the importance of looking at the complete person or situation rather than isolating individual elements., Randomization, Randomization is the process of assigning participants or conditions in an experiment by chance, rather than by choice or pattern. This helps ensure that groups are equivalent at the start of the experiment and reduces bias.

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