Giuseppe Mazzini (1848), Key intellectual, patriot, and revolutionary. Founder of Young Italy (1831), promoted Italian nationalism and republican ideals. Believed unity should come from the people., Giuseppe Garibaldi, Military leader known as “the Hero of Two Worlds.” Led the Expedition of the Thousand (1860) to conquer Sicily and southern Italy., Victor Emmanuel II (1861), First King of a united Italy (1861). Represented constitutional monarchy as a pillar of national unity., Revolutions of 1848, Series of liberal and nationalist uprisings across Italian states. Failed militarily but promoted the idea of independence and unity., Battle of Solferino (1859), The Battle of Solferino, named after the town of Solferino in northern Italy, took place on June 24, 1859. It was fought between the Austrian army and the allied forces of Piedmont-Sardinia and France during the Second Italian War of Independence. The victory for the Piedmontese-French forces allowed Lombardy to be annexed to Piedmont-Sardinia, making a major step toward Italian unification. The battle was extremely bloody, with tens of thousands of soldiers killed or wounded, and its horror inspired Henry Dunant to create the Red Cross, Expedition of the Thousand (1860), Garibaldi’s campaign with 1,000 volunteers that liberated Sicily and southern Italy, overthrowing the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies., Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861), Official unification of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II. Piedmont-Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, and other territories united, though Rome and Venetia were not yet included., Rome (1870), Annexed as the capital of Italy after French troops withdrew. Symbolized political and cultural unification, Congress of Vienna (1815), he Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), held in Vienna, Austria, was a meeting of European powers to restore political stability after Napoleon’s defeat. In Italy, it restored the Papal States under the Pope, returned Lombardy and Venetia to Austrian control, and reinstated the pre-Napoleonic rulers of duchies such as Parma, Modena, and Tuscany. This kept Italy divided into many small states, strengthened conservative rule, and temporarily suppressed nationalist movements, Young Italy, Secret society founded by Mazzini (1831) to promote Italian nationalism and republican ideals. Inspired young patriots to fight for freedom and unity., Carbonari, he Carbonari were a secret society in early 19th-century Italy that aimed to promote liberal ideas, constitutional governments, and national independence. They opposed foreign domination, especially Austrian control in northern Italy, and supported early revolutionary uprisings in 1820–1821, Revolutions of 1820–1821, The Italian Revolutions of 1820–1821 were early uprisings in Naples, Piedmont, and other states, inspired by secret societies like the Carbonari. People wanted constitutions, limits on monarchs, and less foreign control. Most revolts failed, but they inspired later nationalist movements, including Mazzini’s Young Italy, helping prepare the path for the Risorgimento..

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